Review of India’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2024-2030
By Gayathri Gireesh* & Prateek Kamath**
Introduction
The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for 2024-30 was unveiled by India at CoP-16 to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) reinforcing its commitment to biodiversity conservation through targeted actions. Article 6 of the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity requires that the party to the convention makes the strategy and action plan. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) serves as the central agency for executing the strategy.
Biodiversity is an important part of all ecological systems. The term “Biodiversity” means the variety of life forms on Earth at all its levels. This can be from genes to ecosystems and may also include the evolutionary, ecological and cultural processes that sustain life.[1] The term biodiversity directly links with health and encompass physical and mental health, communicable and non-communicable disease, health emergencies, social determinants, and food and water security.[2] In May 2006, the European Commission adopted a communication on “Halting Biodiversity Loss by 2010-and Beyond: Sustaining Ecosystem Services for Human Well-being.”[3]‘ The communication underlined the importance of biodiversity protection as a prerequisite for sustainable development, and for setting out a detailed Action Plan to achieve this.[4] Biodiversity plays a crucial and constructive role in maintaining the ecological balance on the earth.
Within the scope of global conservation efforts, creative strategies must be developed in order to lessen humanity’s influence on biodiversity worldwide. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which was introduced to regulate biodiversity protection, sustainable use of its constituent parts, and fair distribution of benefits from genetic resources, is at the heart of these initiatives.[5] Despite international efforts, human activity is causing biodiversity to decline continuously.[6]
At the 15th CBD Conference of Parties (COP15) in 2022[7], 196 nations endorsed the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), which is a major advancement in the regulation of biodiversity worldwide. By 2050, it aims to restore a harmonious balance with nature and reverse the loss of biodiversity. National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs), the primary tools for operationalizing CBD goals at the national level, must be in line with the GBF in order for these goals to be achieved. NBAPs are guidelines designed to assist nations in planning and making sure they achieve the objectives and targets specified in the GBF. Similar to nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which are plans outlining how particular nations plan to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement. Each NBSAP is distinct because each nation has a different combination of species and ecosystems, as well as different preservation, maintenance and conservational issues.[8].According to a notification published on August 29, 2023, by the National Biodiversity Authority in India, working committee was established to create this paper and six months was allotted for the same [9]
India’s diverse topography and climatic conditions make it an ideal home to more than 55,000 plant taxa and a notable global biodiversity holder[10] among one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the world[11], which contains approximately 7-8% of all recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals.[12] India also has four out of the thirty-four globally identified biodiversity hotspots: The Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the North-East and the Nicobar Islands. India became a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994. Subsequently, many other steps were taken to conserve India’s biodiversity like the development of “India’s National Policy and Macro-Level Strategy on Biodiversity”, enactment of The Biological Diversity Act 2002 and the Biological Diversity Rules 2004. The biggest one of them is arguably the National Biodiversity Action Plan which was approved in 2008 and built upon the 1999 document from Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
Biodiversity Action Plan 2024
Out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that were adopted in 2015 with the hope to help meet the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, two support the achievement of Target 3 directly. These are Goal 14, pertaining to life below water, and Goal 15, pertaining to life on land[13].
Goal 14 promotes conservation and sustainable use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. Under this, at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas should be conserved.
Goal 15 is to ‘protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss’[14].
Despite already having a Biodiversity Action Plan, it was recognized that there was a need to update the policy for multiple reasons. These reasons are outlined at the very beginning of the Action plan[15]. There are mainly five reasons mentioned: Biological Diversity has become a pressing concern both globally and nationally; India has to update its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) to align with the goals and targets set by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM- GBF); This includes 4 goals and 23 Targets which aim at addressing the primary causes of biodiversity loss; Updating the NBSAP would allow for incorporation of existing policies, strategic plans, and citizen-led initiatives; The framework places a strong emphasis on the CBD’s consistency with other international organisations, multilateral agreements, and biodiversity treaties.
The 23 targets have been focused on three main themes: 8 targets focused on reducing threats to biodiversity, 5 Targets focused on Meeting people’s needs through sustainable use and benefit-sharing, and 10 targets focused on Tools and solutions for the implementation and mainstreaming.
Reducing threats to biodiversity
The first target under this theme is called “Biodiversity inclusive integrated land/sea use planning” and it focuses on spatial planning, aligning Forest Working Plans with the National Working Plan Code, and Protected and Conservation Area Management. A working plan serves as a tool for scientific forest management, analysing the condition of forest resources, determining the effects of previous management techniques, and developing appropriate forest management strategies for the ensuing decade[16]. National Forest Policy of 1988 states “No forest should be permitted to be worked without an approved Working Plan by the competent authority”[17].
The second target is called “Ecosystems Restoration”. The new action plan has introduced ideas such as Mapping degraded ecosystems, restoration partnerships, action plans against desertification, river connectivity restoration, mining rehabilitation, etc., to effectively restore at least 30% of the degraded terrestrial, inland water, marine, and coastal ecosystems by 2030. The National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, 2023, also reflects this goal. It calls for restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030, which might result in the creation of an extra carbon sink that can absorb 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2[18].
The third target “Conserve Biodiversity in Land, Water and Sea” talks about Conservation and Community Reserves, Monitoring Protected Areas, strengthen research on PAs, mitigate adverse impacts on UNESCO-designated natural World Heritage Sites and Biodiversity Heritage Sites, etc. to ensure that at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland waters, and marine and coastal areas are effectively conserved. A wide range of tasks have been referred to as “monitoring.” It is the process of collecting data on variables like the number of animals poached each month within a system of interest, like a protected area, or the rate at which forest cover is being lost[19].
The fourth target under this theme is “Manage Species and Genetic Diversity” includes Human-Wildlife conflict mitigation, ex-situ conservation, DNA Profiling, a Unified conservation database, a threatened species list and genetic diversity conservation. The preservation of genetic variation away from its natural habitat is known as ex situ conservation. The most practical and popular technique for genetic conservation is the ex-situ collection and storage of seeds or embryos. Using this method, samples are taken from people or communities and then sent to a gene bank to be stored under carefully monitored circumstances, typically at below-freezing temperatures[20].
The fifth target in this theme is “Sustainable harvest, trade and use of wild species”. This target aims to combat poaching and illegal trade, develop innovative tools for Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), ensure sustainable harvest certification, etc. Any good or service generated in forests that isn’t timber is referred to as a non-timber forest product (NTFP). Medicinal plants, resins, essences, fruits, nuts, vegetables, fish, game, and a variety of barks and fibres like bamboo, rattans, and various palms and grasses are among them.[21].
The sixth target in this theme is “Manage invasive alien species” which has goals like establishing an early warning system, invasion potential assessment, domestic quarantine measures to prevent the spread of invasive species, etc. By identifying and controlling pathways for alien species introduction and eliminating or controlling invasive alien species, particularly in priority sites like islands, we can eliminate, minimize, reduce, and/or mitigate the impact of prioritized invasive alien species on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
The seventh target is “Reduce pollution risks and negative impact” and this aims to (a) Reduce the overall risk of pesticides and highly hazardous chemicals by at least half; (b) Reduce the risks of pollution and the negative impact of pollution from all sources to levels that are not harmful to biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, considering cumulative effects. (c) Prevent, reduce, and work toward eliminating plastic pollution.
The eighth target “Minimize the impact of climate change” aims to reduce the effects of ocean acidification and climate change on biodiversity and boost its resilience by implementing adaptation, mitigation, and disaster risk reduction strategies that use ecosystem-based or nature-based solutions. Reduce adverse effects and promote beneficial effects of climate action on biodiversity.
Meeting people’s needs through sustainable use and benefit sharing
The ninth target and the first under this theme is “Sustainable use of wild species for multiple benefits” and it ensures that wild species are used and managed sustainably by national laws, benefiting people on a social, economic, and environmental level—especially those who are vulnerable and rely on biodiversity. According to the IPBES assessment report, using wild animals has benefited billions of people worldwide, including in rich and developing nations. It is especially important as a natural safety net, giving those in difficult situations both cash income and subsistence. The study also discovered that many indigenous people and small communities depend on wild creatures for their well-being. The dependent community may face an existential threat if even one species becomes extinct.[22]
The tenth target of the NBAP for 2030 strategy is “Sustainable management of agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, aquaculture and forest areas”. In order to support food security, community resilience, biodiversity restoration, long-term efficiency, and productivity for improved ecosystem services, make sure that areas used for agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, aquaculture, forests, grasslands, inland waters, and coastal and marine ecosystems are managed sustainably. The strategic actions for National Target 10 is to establish a national programme to preserve and promote germplasm for nationally crucial cultivated plants as well as for farmed animals including remaining wild relatives (e.g. Barbados Blackbelly sheep; West Indies Sea Island cotton)[23]. It also fostered a plan comprising maintenance of a national register of genetically significant breeds.
The eleventh target is “Enhance and maintain ecosystem services and regulate air and water quality, hazards and extreme events”. For the benefit of all people and the environment, restore, preserve, and improve the benefits that nature provides to humans, including ecosystem services like pollination, soil health, air, water, and climate regulation, disease prevention, and disaster protection. This can be done through ecosystem-based approaches or nature-based solutions. The concept of “One Health” acknowledges the tight relationship between human health, animal health, and the health of our shared environment. Although One Health is not new, its significance has grown in the last several years. This is due to a variety of reasons that have altered how humans, animals, plants, and our surroundings interact[24]. Target 12 under this action plan is to “Enhance green and blue spaces for increased access and human well-being”. For improved access and sustainable usage, greatly expand the size, caliber, and connectedness of green and blue spaces in cities. High-quality, well-managed green and blue areas in cities can improve biodiversity and bring nature back, which has several health advantages. In addition to providing shade and lowering urban heat island areas—areas of elevated temperatures—they also improve mental and physical health and well-being and help people adapt to intense heat. Such biodiverse natural areas (such as a variety of trees and flowering plants) within urban infrastructure offer habitat for the pollinator species that are in decline[25].
Target 13 is “Access and Benefit-Sharing”. At every level, efficient legal, policy, administrative, and capacity-building measures must be implemented to guarantee and enhance the just and equitable distribution of benefits resulting from digital sequence information, biological and genetic resources, and traditional knowledge related to these resources. This includes facilitating suitable access and benefit-sharing tools. According to the Biological Diversity Act of 2002, one of the primary responsibilities of the Biodiversity Management Committee (BMC) is to create the People’s Biodiversity Register, which documents the biological diversity of the region, including habitat preservation, land race conservation, folk varieties and cultivars, domesticated animal and microorganism stocks and breeds, and the documentation of knowledge pertaining to biological diversity[26].
Tools and solutions for implementation and mainstreaming
Target 14 “Mainstreaming biodiversity”. Make sure that laws, rules, planning, budgeting, and development procedures all fully incorporate biodiversity and its many benefits. In order to give a more thorough and multifunctional understanding of the relationships between the economy and the environment as well as the stocks and fluctuations in the stocks of environmental assets that benefit humanity, the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) framework combines economic and environmental data[27].
Target 15 “Sustainable production, supply chains and disclosure of risks” Implement administrative, legislative, or policy steps to support and empower companies—especially big, international corporations and financial institutions—to routinely monitor, evaluate, and report biodiversity-related risks, dependencies, and consequences. Beginning in FY 2022–2023, the top 1000 listed firms (by market capitalization) are required to report their ESG performance in a quantifiable and standardized way under the Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting (BRSR) reporting framework. In FY 2021–2022, the obligated organizations were first urged to voluntarily adopt the BRSR framework[28].
Target 16 “Promote sustainable consumption choices” To fairly lessen the impact of unsustainable consumption, make sure that people are empowered and encouraged to make decisions about sustainable consumption. The mission LiFE is a global mass movement lead by India that encourages community and individual action to save the environment. India adopted the motto LiFE, or Lifestyle for Environment, as a means of addressing climate change during the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was held in Glasgow, UK. Incorporating LiFE within its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) is a first for India.[29]
Target 17 “Strengthen biosafety regulatory capacity” bolsters the ability to put biosafety measures into action. All creatures created using recombinant DNA technology are referred to as living modified organisms (LMOs); a broader variety of modifying technologies are pertinent when thinking about living modified prokaryotes and yeast. [BSWG/2/5: Report of the Biosafety Panel of Experts, Cairo, 1995] – genetically engineered organisms (GMOs), in which natural recombination or mating does not produce their genetic material[30].
Target 18 “Repurpose detrimental incentives for biodiversity” Determine and repurpose incentives, such as subsidies that harm biodiversity, and gradually increase positive incentives for biodiversity protection and sustainable usage.
Target 19 “Resource mobilization” To execute the NBSAP, SBSAPS, and LBSAPS, make sure that sufficient funds are flowing from all sources, including public, private, international, and other creative financial methods. A financial tool known as biodiversity credits enables private businesses to fund initiatives that result in net positive biodiversity gains, including forest protection or restoration. [31]
Target 20 “Capacity development, technology and scientific cooperation” Through South-South, North-South, and Triangular Cooperation, enhance capacity building, technology access and transfer, and innovation access and development. The most widely used definition of GIS is ‘a computer-based system that captures, stores, manages, analyses, and displays georeferenced data (geographic data)’. It is extensively utilized for ecological and environmental data management, allowing for the mapping and tracking of habitats and species distributions. Databases can be used to track geographic ranges, follow changes over time, and plan surveys or monitoring programs by storing information such as species presence/absence and habitat records. In order to facilitate thorough ecological analyses, GIS integrates a variety of data sources, such as aspatial data (such as measurements, characteristics, and photographs) and spatial data (such as maps, satellite imagery, and aerial photos)[32].
Target 21 “Communication, awareness and knowledge management” To guide effective and equitable governance and integrated and participatory management, make sure that decision-makers, practitioners, and the general public have access to the best information and knowledge available from science, research, and evidence-based sources. Additionally, improve communication, education, awareness-raising, research, monitoring, and knowledge management related to biodiversity conservation.
Target 22 “Equitable and effective participation in decision-making” Assure youth, ethnic groups, and local communities full, equitable, inclusive, effective, and gender-responsive representation and participation in planning, decision-making, management, and access to justice and biodiversity-related information.
Target 23 “Gender equality in decision-making and implementation” Use a gender-responsive approach to ensure gender equality in the NBSAP, SBSAPS, and LBSAPS implementation, giving all women and girls the same chance and ability to participate in biodiversity-related decision-making.
EU’S Biodiversity Plan;
EU’S Biodiversity strategy action plan lays heavy reliance on the conservation as well as restoration of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the wider EU countryside. An estimated EUR 20.3 billion of EAFRD has been allotted to agri-environmental initiatives for 2007–2013 under Axis 2 of the Rural Development Programme, offering significant assistance for biodiversity and Natura 2000. Furthermore, as part of this policy, new targeted measures totaling about EUR 577 million have been allocated only to Natura 2000 forest and agricultural areas. Member States’ overall usage of these money varies greatly from one another.
Under cross-compliance, there are four main standards of Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC), as well as the Statutory Management Requirements related to the nature Directives, which can provide significant biodiversity benefits.
A Common Monitoring and Evaluation Framework (CMEF) for rural development will include biodiversity-relevant indicators. This will ascertain the extent to which measures under the rural development policy are delivering biodiversity benefits. The projected expansion of crops dedicated to the production of biomass and biofuels, although replacing fossil fuels and thus reducing global greenhouse gas emissions may, in the absence of adequate environmental safeguards, have a negative impact on EU biodiversity. To avoid this potential negative impact, the Commission has proposed sustainability criteria for biofuels.[33]
Conclusion
The manifestation of the concept of intrinsic value orientation through NBSAPs comprises of (1) recognizing intrinsic value, (2) endangered species and habitats, (3) conservation programmes and (4) threats to nature.[34]
In the NBSAPs, these kinds of notions expressed via statements are explicitly recognized through the intrinsic value of biodiversity, resources, habitats and the ‘needs’ of nature. For example, the Australian NBSAP also states that ‘We share the Earth with many other life forms that should be conserved for their own sake’ and ‘Biodiversity is also held by many to have intrinsic values’ as mentioned in the NBSAP of Malaysia.
The main objective through these statements referenced protecting endangered/endemic/or rare species and habitats that were threatened or support such species, for their intrinsic value. The statements referring conservation programs include initiatives, management, or policies relating creation or expansion of protected areas, zoning and mapping ecologically sensitive areas, reintroducing species, expanding fenced areas, stepping up enforcement of conservation areas, enforcing laws against poaching and illegal trade, or conserving particular species. These declarations also explicitly distinguished between humans and “nature,” frequently using terms like “wild” or “intact nature,” and conservation programs were developed with this distinction in mind, emphasizing that these places had to remain free from human interference. For instance, according to Bhutan’s NBSAP, “natural processes can only exist in their natural form in large natural areas that are not directly influenced by humans.”
The main themes in the manifestation of relational value orientation in the NBSAPs were classified in a five-fold manner: (1) duty and responsibility protecting nature, (2) values expressed for nature, (3) national pride and heritage, (4) Indigenous peoples and local community’s (IP&LCs) relationships with nature, (5) protecting nature for future generations, and (6) equity in the use and access of nature.[35]
NBAP and other relevant government policies contribute toward accomplishing global biodiversity targets by implementing conservation measures. Implementing Species Action or Threat Response Plans at Natura 2000 sites. This involves establishing population objectives for vulnerable and endangered species, supporting conservation programs, and promoting ex-situ conservation through seed banks and biobanks. The Finnish NBSAP processes have been able to build diverse forms of responsibility (liability, accountability, responsiveness and care) in different policy sectors by providing new knowledge, careful process design and developing institutional linkages.[36] The National Restoration Plan will protect habitat for species. A notable aspect of the NBSAP[37] is its dedication to inclusive participation, which guarantees that women and young people, as well as other vulnerable and excluded segments of society, will participate in biodiversity governance. By encouraging intergenerational parity in planning and execution, this strategy cultivates a feeling of accountability and ownership for the preservation of biodiversity.[38]
*Gayathri Gireesh, Consultant Advocate, CEERA NLSIU
**Prateek A Kamath ,V BBA LLB , KLE Society’s Law College, Bangalore
[1] https://www.amnh.org/research/center-for-biodiversity-conservation/what-is-biodiversity[2] Willetts, L., van de Pas, R., Woolaston, K., Bennett, N. J., Vora, N. M., Shah, D., … & Stewart-Ibarra, A. (2024). Implementing the Global Action Plan on Biodiversity and Health. The Lancet, 404(10470), 2402-2405.
[3] Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions: A Mid-Term Assessment of Implementing the EC Biodiversity Action Plan, 12 J. INT’l WILDLIFE L. & POL’y 108 (January-June 2009).
[4] COM (2006) 216.
[5] Leveraging AI for enhanced alignment of national biodiversity targets with the global biodiversity goals – ScienceDirect
[6] Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany (2019)
[7] Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook 5. Montreal (2020). https://www.cbd.int/gbo/gbo5/publication/gbo-5-en.pdf
[8] India is currently upgrading the NBSAP
[9] Varshney, V. (2024). Are the updated NBSAPs talking about protected areas? In A. Shankar (Ed.), AREA-BASED CONSERVATION: 20 QUESTIONS ON THE 30X30 TARGET (pp. 39–43). Centre for Science and Environment. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep64010.14
[10] What is India’s new biodiversity strategy for 2030?- The Week.
[11] https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/06/environment-day-biodiversity-world-megadiverse-countries/
[12] https://iucn.org/our-work/region/asia/countries/india#:~:text=India%2C%20a%20megadiverse%20country%20with,and%2091%2C000%20species%20of%20animals.
[13] Varshney, V. (2024). Does Target 3 have any relation with SDGs or any other global goals? In A. Shankar (Ed.), AREA-BASED CONSERVATION: 20 QUESTIONS ON THE 30X30 TARGET (pp. 25–27). Centre for Science and Environment. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep64010.9
[14] Ibid.
[15] nbaindia.org/uploaded/pdf/INDIA’sUPDATEDNBSAP.pdf
[16]https://forests.ap.gov.in/workingplan.php#:~:text=Working%20Plan%20is%20a%20tool,forests%20for%20next%20ten%20years.
[17] https://mpforest.gov.in/img/files/Policy_NFP.pdf
[18]https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2038292#:~:text=The%20National%20Action%20Plan%20to%20Combat%20Desertification%2C%202023%20highlights%20the,focus%20on%20addressing%20the%20sustainable
[19]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257363149_Module_6_Monitoring_for_Management_of_Protected_Areas_-_An_Overview_Background_Presentation_and_Exercises
[20] https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/ex-situ-conservation#:~:text=Ex%2Dsitu%20conservation%20involves%20maintenance,%2C%20gardens%2C%20nurseries%2C%20etc.
[21] https://www.cifor-icraf.org/publications/corporate/factsheet/ntfp.htm#:~:text=Non%2Dtimber%20forest%20products%20(NTFPs,that%20is%20produced%20in%20forests.
[22] https://zenodo.org/records/7411847
[23] Hoban, S., Hvilsom, C., Abdeldjalil, A., Aleixo, A., Biala, K., Ekblom, R., … & da Silva, J. (2024). How can biodiversity strategy and action plans incorporate genetic diversity concerns, plans, policies, capacity, and commitments?.
[24] https://www.cdc.gov/one-health/about/index.html#:~:text=One%20Health%20is%20a%20collaborative,plants%2C%20and%20their%20shared%20environment.
[25] https://ukhealthalliance.org/influencing-policy/biodiversity-climate-change-and-health/green-and-blue-spaces-in-urban-environments/#:~:text=Why%20we%20need%20to%20protect,use%20and%20land%20cover%20changes.
[26] Biodiversity Act, 2002, §41
[28] https://www.ceew.in/cef/quick-reads/explains/brsr
[29] https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2022/nov/doc2022119122601.pdf
[30] https://www.eea.europa.eu/help/glossary/chm-biodiversity/living-modified-organisms-lmos
[31] https://www.wri.org/insights/biodiversity-credits-explained#:~:text=What%20Are%20Biodiversity%20Credits%20and,deliver%20net%20positive%20biodiversity%20gains.
[32]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252544527_Application_of_GIS_to_biodiversity_monitoring#:~:text=An%20important%20tool%20for%20monitoring,target%20surveys%20and%20monitoring%20schemes.
[33] Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions: A Mid-Term Assessment of Implementing the EC Biodiversity Action Plan, 12 J. INT’l WILDLIFE L. & POL’y 108 (January-June 2009).
[34] Assessing multiple values of nature in National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans – Murali – 2024 – People and Nature – Wiley Online Library
[35] Murali, R., Lliso, B., Mannetti, L. M., Filyushkina, A., Amaruzaman, S., Amin, A. M., … & Yiu, E. (2024). Assessing multiple values of nature in National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans. People and Nature, 6(3), 1355-1365. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/pan3.10645
[36] Sarkki, S., Niemelä, J., Tinch, R., Jäppinen, J. P., Nummelin, M., Toivonen, H., & Von Weissenberg, M. (2015). Are national biodiversity strategies and action plans appropriate for building responsibilities for mainstreaming biodiversity across policy sectors? The case of Finland. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 59(8), 1377–1396. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2015.1076384
[37] National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).
[38] India update National Biodiversity strategy, action plan – THE NEW INDIAN.
*** Featured Image Sourced From – https://www.australianenvironmentaleducation.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Biodiversity-768×384.jpg